THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND England's Charles II gave a grant of 45,000 square miles in the new World to William Penn to pay off loans made by Penn's father to the King. Penn called the grant Pennsylvania which was occupied by the Lenni Lenape Indians, and trading posts run by the Dutch, Swedes and Fins. He sold land parcels to the Quakers and other dissenters in an brilliant marketing plan, promising them religious freedom. In 1681, in an area covered by the "Governor's Woods." Penn chartered the "greene Country Towne" and called it Philadelphia. This location was the closest in Pennsylvania to the ocean and had abundant water power at the fall line, a border between the granite hills of the Piedmont plateau and the sandy coastal plains. As shown on the early "Scull and Heap" Map of 1752, a grid plan was adopted between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, with lots sufficiently large to prevent the spread of fire.
THE SCHUYLKILL RIVER's name is Dutch for hidden river, and is an appropriate description of the river in early times. The Schuylkill River was used as a highway to the interior of the state, and a location to swim, fish, ice skate, and perform occasional Baptisms, singing The Schuylkill Hymn: "Jesus Master O discover, Pleasure in us, now we stand, On the bank of Schuylkill River, to obey thy great command..."
The banks were heavily foliage up to the Laurel Hill and there were no road of any kind along the east shore up to East Falls at Midvale, Promontory Rock at Girard Av blocking access along the river edge, and only short sections of paths on the west side near Columbia bridge. But for the occasional canal boat drawn by teams of mules with faintly tinkling bells, there was little to break the solitude of the River.
THE REVOLUTION After Washington's defeat in August 1777 at Brandywine Creek, Anthony Wayne's encampment was overrun in the "Paole Massacre". Gen. Washington withdrew to Valley Forge to protect his supplies at Reading and the Colonial government in exile at Lancaster. British General Howe occupied Germantown. The War was bought to the Schuylkill when a failed attempt by the Americans to take Gen. Howe's headquarters in Germantown resulted in a skirmish at a British outpost near the mouth of the Wissahickon Creek. However, the determination of the American attack impressed Howe to the extent that he withdrew his army to Philadelphia. The British laid siege to Fort Mifflin for over a month to open up the Delaware River, then built a line of ten stone fortresses to protect their northern flank along what is now Fairmount Avenue, from the Delaware River to a redoubt atop Fair Mount. These forts were garrisoned by Hessian mercenary troops.
After the French alliance with the rebels in 1778, the British withdrew to New York. General Benedict Arnold was placed in charge of the City. His Tory sympathy led to a "prosecution" by the Supreme Executive Council, and Arnold withdrew, defected, and made a proposal to the British for the surrender of West Point. While still in town, a engagement party for his fiance Peggy Chippen was held at Mt Pleasant, just north of Fairmount. After the British withdrawal, much physical refurbishing and rebuilding was necessary due to British destruction, such as the burning of "Somerton" mansion, the home of Charles Thomson, Secretary to the Continental Congress. The Federal period ended in Philadelphia with the move of government it Washington in 1800. Philadelphia at this time was the largest city in the US, and considered a pleasant place to live. However, the Government's embargo against France in 1808 and the British blockade of the war of 1812 crushed commerce in the City, and turned the city's energy to the industrial revolution.
EARLY INDUSTRY From the city's infancy there had been ferries across the river. From the time of the Revolution two floating bridges crossed the Schuylkill, and were often swept away in freshets. In 1800, a 552 foot long wood covered bridge crossed at Market St. In 1806 the first suspension bridge in the US was built at the Falls of Schuylkill. In 1810, a 340 foot covered bridge was built at Upper Ferry.
In 1807, Robert Kennedy, a tavern keeper at the Falls of Schuylkill near Midvale Av. bought the waterpower rights, and sold the rights in 1809 to Josiah White who built a rolling mill and wire factory. He later used bituminous coal from Virginia, but became interested in the cheaper anthracite coals from upstate Pennsylvania, which was abundant but no one yet knew how to properly use. After experiments proved fruitless, a large amount were left in a closed furnace to burn off. On returning it was found that the furnace was red hot, and could roll three times the amount of iron than the other coal could. This accidental discovery was the first industrial use of this very efficient fuel. White then formed the Schuylkill Navigation Company to bring the coal from Carbon County down the Schuylkill to Philadelphia. This helped transformed the city from a wood burning commercial center to a industrial center.
When completed in 1825, the canal measured 108 miles from East Falls to Reading, fifty eight miles of canals, fifty miles of pools, 129 locks, thirty four dams, one tunnel, 385 long, and a rise of 610 feet. The Lehigh Canal connected it to the railhead of the nine mile gravity railroad which took the coal from the mine at Summit Hill to Mauch Chunk, now called Jim Thorpe. Single horse barges took four days for a trip down river. The system was later purchased by the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad. A wharf had been constructed along the river front where the boathouses are now located. These fell into decay, and a line of submerged pilings presented a hazard to early boating.
The Schuylkill Canal system caused the river from Fair Mount south to develop into an industrial area with a series of docks and piers, rolling mills, manufacturing plants and taverns, and a solid mass of wharves from which coastal ships distributed the coals along the Alantic seaboard. Robert Morris started a canal along Vine Street to connect the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, but never completed it. The Columbia railroad bridge tracks now run in the canal trench under Pennsylvania Av. There were numerous ice houses on both banks up to Columbia bridge. Kern Ice House was located just upriver of the boathouses and Lips Brewery was situated on the west bank across from boathouse row. There was a passenger ferry service in the late 19th century from the Water works area, stopping at the goose pens area, Robin Hood Dell, East Falls and the Wissahickon.
THE WATERWORKS In 1793, a devastating yellow fever epidemic, caused by mosquitoes breeding in rain barrels, motivated the city to develop the first Municipal Water works in the country in 1805. Benjamin Latrobe planned, Nicholas Roosevelt built pumps, and Frederick Graff was chief engineer for this project. Initially water was taken directly from the river and pumped by steam engines housed in the still existent Graff Mansion, to a reservoir atop Fair Mount, the present site of the Art Museum, and gravity fed to a pump station at Center Square, where City Hall is now located. The steam engines proved expensive and dangerous, so in 1822, the City built a dam across the river to power water wheels. The dam was laid out diagonally across the river in order to direct destructive currents away from the waterworks mill house. The five acre site surrounding the waterworks was landscaped as a public garden, making it the earliest municipal park in the US, and the genesis of Fairmount Park.
THE WEST SIDE ESTATES After the outbreak of the Revolution, William Penn's son John purchased a estate on the west side of the Schuylkill, and built the "Solitude", which is now the office for the Zoo. John Bartram, a world renowned botanist, built his home and gardens on the lower Schuylkill in 1758. The grandson of Andrew Hamilton built the Woodlands Mansion in the Federal style near the University of Pennsylvania. Solitude at the Zoo, Beveridge, Egglesfield (both of which no longer exist), Ormiston, Belmont, Greendland, Chamounix and Lansdowne in West park were other prominent estates on the west side of the Schuylkill.
THE EAST SIDE ESTATES Fair Mount was originally proposed as an estate for William Penn, but instead he located his mansion at Pennsgrove, Pennsylvania. The area to the east of Fair Mount was known as Bush Hill, near 18th and Spring Garden St, and Springeles Berry Manor just to the North. Stephen Girard, probably the wealthiest man in the U.S., left his estate to the city of Philadelphia for Girard College. Mount Pleasant, Ormiston, Laurel Hill, Woodford and Strawberry Mansion were later acquired to complete East Park to the Wissahickon.
LEMON HILL By 1770, Robert Morris, a prominent merchant and superintendent of finance to the Colonial Government, acquired parcels of land along the Schuylkill, and started a working farm known as the "Hills", which includes the grounds now occupied by Boathouse Row. By 1800, Morris and Girard, along with Thomas Fitzsimons, Thomas McKean, Israel Israel, Dr. Benjamin Rush, and others, tried to regain the political power lost by the upper class in 1776. After their political defeat with the adoption of the Constitution, and the financial crises in 1810, and finding himself financially overextended, Morris was forced to sell his holding and was imprisoned for debt. Public outrage over his imprisonment led to the nation's first bankruptcy laws. Part of Morris's estate was sold to Henry Pratt, who built the present mansion called "Lemon Hill" in Neoclassical style. The area was developed into attractive gardens, called Pratt Gardens, and open "freely to the public". Lemon Hill was next owned by Issic Loyd. In 1844 the city purchased Lemon Hill from the Bank of the U.S. for $75,000.
SEDGLEY ESTATE The adjoining upriver Sedgley estate was built in 1799 and was owned first by William Cramond and later by Benjamin Latrobe, the first water works engineer. The city acquired the Sedgley Estate as a gift in 1854. The Sedgley estate was considered the earliest American Home designed in the Gothic style. It was demolished in 1857. For eleven years the Sedgley property was leased to William H. Kern, the sheriff of Philadelphia, who ran a popular beer garden, which probably accounts for the attraction of this site for the boatclubs. Both Pratt and Kern allowed several boathouses to erect small wood boatsheds along the river front.
THE CITY TAKES CONTROL Both estates were acquired by the City to prevent further commercial development and protect the purity of the water used in the waterworks. The outlying neighborhood, called Northern Liberties, was incorporated into the city with the Act of Consolidation adopted in 1854. An City Ordinance of Sept. 15, 1855 set aside 45 acres between Lemon Hill and the water works as a commons to be held in trust for the "Citizens of Philadelphia". This resulted in the city's direct management of the site, and the city started landscaping these estates as an extension of Fair Mount. The existing boatsheds were condemned by City Ordinance of 1859, but a subsequent ordinance of 1860 allowed three clubs, Bachelors, Pacific (now Fairmount R.A.) and the Skating and Humane Society (now Philadelphia Girls RC.) to "hold, occupy and enjoy the use of the ground upon which the Clubs stand within the limits of Fairmount Park." This agreement was later extended to other clubs.
THE FAIRMOUNT PARK COMMISSION When the Fairmount Park Commission was formed in 1867, a committee comprised of Frederick Graff, the waterworks engineer, and Strickland Kness issued a report again calling for the removal of the boatclubs, but pressure bought to bear upon Council by the various boatclubs and the Schuylkill Navy resulted in an Ordinance of 1878 which allowed them to remain, providing they built houses in the approved Victorian Gothic style. In 1898 the Fairmount Park trolley system was established and the Strawberry trolley bridge built across the river race course.
DREDGING THE RIVER The history of the rowing on the Schuylkill River would not be complete without telling the story of the battle with the silt. Upstate hydraulic mining culm washing down along with soil runoff gradually filled the river bottom. The Park Commission maintained a dredge to keep this silting under control. In spite of their efforts, certain areas periodically filled up to the point where boats literally became stuck in the mud. Directly in front of Boathouse Row, the water eddied and flowed upstream, depositing silt until an island built up the full length of Boathouse Row. University of Pennsylvania coach Rusty Callow said the river was "much too thick to drink, much too thin to plow." Finally in 1953-54, under the State's Clean Streams program, the river was given a complete dredging from Norristown to the Fairmount Dam. The dredged material was pumped to a southwest Philadelphia landfill for the Eastwick housing area. In 1986, a proposal to obtain Federal funds to have the Army Engineers dredge the basin was started. However changes in Federal recreational dredging regulations put this project on hold until the necessary political support can be mustered. In 1990, a small dredging project was initiated by Jack Galloway for clearing the channel in front of Boathouse Row. In 1996, Bill Mifflin, the Director of Fairmount Park, petitioned Congressman Borski to sponsor a bill making the Army Corps of Engineers responsible for maintaining the river. The bill was passed and signed into law by President Clinton.
ROWING ON THE SCHUYLKILL had historical roots dating back to 1732, when two social clubs called "Colony in Schuylkill" and "Fort St. David" maintained a fleet of boats for fishing and recreation (A monument marks their location at Sweetbrier cutoff and West River Drive). In subsequent years the owners of the large estates along the Schuylkill maintained rowing boats for transportation and amusement. The water works dam dramatically altered the river from a tidal stream to a long fresh water lake which drowned the cataract known as the Falls of Schuylkill near Midvale Av. and Kelly Drive. This new character of the river provided a relative flat calm surface which became one of the finest location available for rowing in the country. Much of the history of U.S. sculling has been established on this ideal stream whose gentle current did not, under ordinary conditions, affect the outcome of the race.
THE BOATS Rowing is one of man's oldest transportation activities using mechanical devices. By 3,000 B.C., Phoenicians and Egyptians had large trading ships propelled by oars. The ancient Greeks produced triremes war ships with up to 200 oarsmen. Greek oarsmen were freemen, but Romans and other North African nations used chained slaves pulling oars. Rowing got its name from the rows of oars placed one above the other in galleys. The Romans, Carthaginians, Venetian and Knights of Malta all had extensive fleets of rowing galleys. The Vikings were the scourge of Northern Europe with their feared dragon longboats. The first recorded competitive regatta occurred in Venice in 1315. Early racing boats were descended from the English Thames River clinker built boats, and the New York Whitehall skiffs, named for Whitehall St. at the Battery. These boats were often involved in betting races. The first four oared boat race took place in 1811 between the Invincible and Knickerbocker boats in Manhattan.
Riggers, first used at bow and stern to compensate for the narrowing of the boats and to increase leverage were developed by Anthony Brown in England around 1828. This allowed the boats to be narrow, the rowers placed directly over the keel, and the boat weight decreased. The first keelless boats and spoon shaped oars were built by Henry Clasper of Oxford in 1848.
The swivel oarlock was invented by Mitchel Davis of Yale, and the slide with wheels have been variously attributed to Dr. Schiller of Berlin, the Canadian Ed Hanlin, and Capt. John Babcock, the first President of the NAAO. They were first used in a crew boat in 1870. Walter Brown of England first raced a sliding seat single in 1861. Before that time the same effect was accomplished by sluicing the seat with grease and sliding on leather bottom trousers. Some early Schuylkill boats had staggered rowing seats with wicker ladies seats alongside the rowers. Up to this time the largest sweep racing shell were six men boats without coxswains (although there were 10 and 12 person shells built in England.) The last six oared barge race recorded in Philadelphia was in 1884.
Wood boats were the norm, although pressed paper boats were made in the 1870's, and aluminum boats in the 1920's. George Pocock, the son of the Eton School boatbuilder, immigrated to Seattle and produced the state of the art wood shells from 1920 to 1960, and became known as the father of American rowing. Graeme King, Hugh Hudson, and Ron Owen still carry on the tradition of building wood singles.
In the Scientific American magazine for Sept. 1927, a U.S. Naval Academy test tank study of shell hull speeds that was published, basically determined resistance increases four times as speed doubles and the power required increases eight time. Compost carbon fiber, Kevlar and epoxy resins boats developed rapidly in the 1970's, and minimum weight requirements were introduced by FISA to control the spiraling cost of the lightweight shells. The new Resolute Shells can cost in excess of $30,000. FISA will require all 8s to be sectional starting in the 2000 Olympics in order to reduce cost of shipping.
TRAINING Among the factors which determine the rate which allows a crew to go at the fastest speed possible, physical conditioning appears to be the most important. One of the first scientific studies of rowers training and equipment was made by Prof. Yendall Henderson at Yale and published in the "American Journal of Physiology". A British study of oarsmen published by the University of Durham Philosophical Society in 1926, they found oxygen consumption increased with an increasing stroke rate, and power increased at a decreasing rate because of the buildup of lactic acid, causing fatigue. Therefore if the rower is sufficiently conditioned, the higher stroke rate will correspond to a increase in power, and a higher speed realized. Also, Prof. Coleman Griffith of the University of Illinois published "the Psychology of Athletes and of Coaching" that reinforced the dictum "We learn by doing, and we set habit by repetition".
TECHNIQUE By the turn of the century, rowing style became a center of great controversy. The traditional English orthodox style featured a long straight-backed body swing. In this conventional theory, a boat pulling together and recovering uniformly, the shell moves faster and farther between strokes than it does while the oars are in the water, thus a crew which can control its movement has a good chance of winning. George Pocock's adage that "oarsmen must row with the boat" meaning they must not row faster than the boat is going otherwise they will rush their slides to attain a higher stroke, and therefore checking and reducing the run of the boat.
In the U.S. the American Conibear style stroke was developed. This required a hard quick catch, with shoulders and body vertical within 2 to 3 inches after the catch, a quick zip out of the bow with the arms at the finish, fast first part of the slide slowing at the last moment the recovery. This style was promoted by Ulbrickson at Washington, Ky Ebright at California, James Ten Eyck at Syracuse, Norm Sonju at Wisconsin, Pop Courtney and Stork Sanford at Cornell, Joe Burke at Penn, Ed Leader and Rusty Callow at Washington,Penn, and Navy, all of whom learned from Conibear at the University of Washington. Steve Fairbairn's adage that mileage wins races was a precursor of year-round on water training.
Continue to the next section, Part 2 - Beginnings of the Clubs
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